193: The Empire of the Rising Sun: Military Imperialism in Japan (1853–1941)

Key Takeaways

Commodore Perry's 1853 visit ended Japan's 200-year isolation, forcing it to open to the wider world.
The Meiji Restoration rapidly transformed Japan into a modern industrial and military power through Western adoption.
Japan's imperial ambitions led to territorial expansion, conquering Korea and defeating China and Russia.
Engineered incidents and brutal atrocities, like the "Rape of Nanjing," characterized Japan's expansion into China.
U.S. sanctions, particularly the 1941 oil embargo, cornered Japan, prompting its decision to wage war.

On July 4, 1853, four U.S. Navy vessels arrived off Japan, which had been isolationist for over two centuries.
President Millard Fillmore sought relations for shipwrecked sailors, U.S. vessel provisioning, a coaling station, and trade.
Commodore Matthew C. Perry's four "black ships" appeared in Edo Bay on July 8, 1853, intimidating the Japanese with their industrial might.
On July 14, 1853, an armed American delegation presented President Fillmore's letter, demanding Japan open its doors to trade.

The Tokugawa shogunate capitulated to the U.S., fueling internal discontent among samurai who viewed it as dishonoring Japan.
Discontented samurai overthrew the shogunate by 1868, leading to the Meiji Restoration under Emperor Mutsuhito; the capital moved to Tokyo.
The Meiji Restoration established an oligarchic elite focused on dismantling feudalism and transforming Japan into a modern industrial power.
Under "Bunmei Kaika," Japan adopted Western practices, including new prefectures, social equality laws, and foreign expertise for railroads and factories.
A modern Imperial Japanese army was established with conscription, suppressing the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion and consolidating government control.

Following modernization, imperial military leader Yamagata Aritomo advocated conquering weak neighbors for resources and borders.
This led to the annexation of Korea and victory in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, demonstrating Japan's military strength.
Japan challenged Russia in 1904-1905, achieving a stunning victory in the Russo-Japanese War.
Japan joined the Allies in World War I, capturing German territories and reinforcing its claim to great power status.

On September 18, 1931, Japanese officers, including Colonel Itegaki Seiishiro, engineered an incident in Mukden, Manchuria.
Officers Ishiwara Kanji and Itegaki Seiishiro planned to fabricate an incident by blowing up railroad tracks and blaming Chinese soldiers.
Lieutenant Sue Mori Kawemoto planted explosives near Liaochoku on September 18, 1931, but they failed to derail the Mukden Express.
Despite the failure, the Kwantung Army used the incident as a pretext to commence the Manchurian invasion.

In 1931, the Japanese army seized power and invaded Manchuria with popular support and little international opposition.
Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi's attempts at compromise led to his assassination in May 1932, and the army appointed a foreign minister.
Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in February 1933 after the League called for the restoration of Chinese sovereignty in Manchuria.
The Imperial Army declared its intention to disregard naval conference treaties, aiming for total control of East Asia and empire building.

By 1936, China's Nationalist and Communist factions united under Chiang Kai-shek to form a united front against Japan.
On the night of July 7, 1937, a Japanese garrison practicing maneuvers near Beijing and the Marco Polo Bridge initiated a tense standoff.
The incident escalated when Japanese soldiers, responding to supposed gunfire and a missing private, faced Chinese troops opening fire.
This confrontation at the city gates of Huangping on July 7, 1937, ignited the Second Sino-Japanese War.

In Nanjing on December 17, 1937, missionary Minnie Votrane attempted to protect over 4,000 refugees at Jinling College.
Japanese soldiers forcibly entered the college, assaulting Votrane and abducting women while she was held at gunpoint.
The events are known as the "Nanjing Massacre" or "Rape of Nanjing," estimating hundreds of thousands of deaths.
Businessman John Rabe and German physician John Rabe attempted to save lives amidst the brutal occupation.

Japan faced a critical shortage of war materials and occupied French Indochina in September 1940 to secure resources.
Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, solidifying the Axis alliance.
The U.S. escalated economic pressure due to Japan's alliance and expansion into Indochina.
By July 1941, the U.S. froze Japanese assets and imposed an oil embargo, cutting off 90% of Japan's oil supply.

Emperor Hirohito initially favored diplomacy, expressing concerns about war with Allied powers, but a U.S. deal deadline passed.
Prime Minister Tojo Hideki's diplomatic efforts were rejected by U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull.
With diplomacy failing and facing an oil deficit, Japan's leaders, including Tojo and Yamamoto, decided on war.
On December 1, 1941, at an Imperial Conference, Tojo informed Emperor Hirohito that war with the United States was the only option for survival, and the Emperor assented.